{"id":72245,"date":"2016-04-05T14:46:19","date_gmt":"2016-04-05T19:46:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/beta.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/2016\/04\/05\/restrictions-on-womens-religious-attire\/"},"modified":"2025-04-23T23:58:16","modified_gmt":"2025-04-24T03:58:16","slug":"restrictions-on-womens-religious-attire","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/beta.pewresearch.org\/pewresearch-org\/religion\/2016\/04\/05\/restrictions-on-womens-religious-attire\/","title":{"rendered":"Restrictions on Women\u2019s Religious Attire"},"content":{"rendered":"

In many countries around the world, women\u2019s choices about their attire and appearance are restricted to some degree by government laws, policies or regulations. In recent years, most of these countries have had laws or policies that ban women from wearing religious attire in public places or limit their ability to do so in some circumstances. By comparison, far fewer countries require women to wear particular types of attire (such as headscarves or long dresses) for religious reasons.<\/p>\n\n

As part of its annual study on government restrictions on religion and social hostilities involving religion, Pew Research Center tracks the number of countries where some level of government \u2013 national, provincial or local \u2013 regulates \u201cthe wearing of religious symbols, such as head coverings for women and facial hair for men.\u201d[1. For more details, see Pew Research Center\u2019s February 2015 report \u201c<\/span>Latest Trends in Religious Restrictions and Hostilities<\/a>.\u201d] Looking at only those laws, policies or regulations that apply specifically to women, the Center finds that 50 of the 198 countries and territories included in the study had at least one law or policy regulating women\u2019s religious attire in 2012 and 2013, the two most recent years for which data are available. About three-quarters of those countries (39 of the 50, or 78%) had a law or policy limiting<\/em> women\u2019s ability<\/em> to wear religious attire, while about a quarter (12 of the 50, or 24%) had at least one law or policy requiring women<\/em> to wear particular attire. Some of these laws or policies applied nationwide, while others were imposed at the provincial, state or local level. One country \u2013 Russia \u2013 had policies forbidding women from wearing religious attire (in the territory of Stavropol, where Muslim headscarves, or hijabs, were banned in public schools) as well as policies requiring women to wear religious attire (in Chechnya, where women were required to wear hijabs in all public buildings).<\/span>[2. See U.S. Department of State. July 28, 2014. \u201cRussia.\u201d 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom. Also see Barry, Ellen. March 18, 2013. \u201c<\/span>Local Russian Hijab Ban Puts Muslims in a Squeeze.<\/a>\u201d The New York Times.]<\/span><\/p>\n\n

<\/span><\/p>\n\n

\"Where<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Laws or policies limiting women\u2019s ability to wear religious attire were particularly common in Europe, where 18 of the region\u2019s 45 countries (40%) had at least one such restriction in 2012-2013.[3. For background, see Human Rights Watch. Dec. 21, 2010. \u201cQuestions and Answers on Restrictions on Religious Dress and Symbols in Europe.<\/a>\u201d] Several European countries effectively banned certain types of religious garb in public places. In France, for example, authorities continued to enforce a law passed in 2010 that prohibits people from covering their faces in public places, including government buildings, public transportation and venues such as restaurants and movie theaters. Those who did not comply with a police officer\u2019s request to uncover their face could be fined or ordered to attend a citizenship class.[4. See U.S. Department of State. July 28, 2014. \u201cFrance.\u201d 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom. According to the State Department\u2019s 2012 Report on International Religious Freedom: \u201cThe policy of the police is not to enforce the law in private locations, or around places of worship, where the law\u2019s application would unduly interfere with the free exercise of religion. \u2026 If an individual refuses to remove the garment, police may take the person to the local police station to verify his or her identity. However, an individual may not be questioned or held for more than four hours.\u201d Also see Willsher, Kim. July 1, 2014. \u201cFrance\u2019s Burqa Ban Upheld by Human Rights Court<\/a>.\u201d The Guardian.] A similar policy was in effect in Belgium, where police continued to enforce a 2011 federal law banning people from wearing clothing that covers the face, or large parts of it, in public places. Violators could be fined and\/or detained for up to seven days.[5. See U.S. Department of State. July 28, 2014. \u201cBelgium.\u201d 2013 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Also see July 23, 2011. \u201cBelgian Ban on Full Veils Comes Into Force<\/a>.\u201d BBC News.] In December 2012, Belgium\u2019s Constitutional Court upheld the ban, ruling that it was necessary to protect public safety, ensure equality between men and women and preserve \u201ca certain conception of \u2018living together\u2019 in society.\u201d[6. See U.S. Department of State. May 20, 2013. \u201cBelgium.\u201d 2012 Report on International Religious Freedom. Also see Chaib, Saila Ouald. Dec. 14, 2012. \u201cBelgian Constitutional Court says Ban on Face Coverings Does not Violate Human Rights.\u201d<\/a> The Strasbourg Observer.]<\/p>\n\n

\"Where<\/a><\/figure>\n\n

[10.\u00a0See U.S. Department of State. May 20, 2013. \u201cAlgeria.\u201d 2012 Report on International Religious Freedom.]<\/p>\n\n\n

[12.\u00a0See Human Rights Watch. 2014. \u201cWorld Report 2014: Indonesia<\/a>.]<\/p>\n\n\n

[18.\u00a0See U.S. Department of State. July 28, 2014. \u201cKenya.\u201d 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom. Also see Namlola, Juma. March 25, 2015. \u201cMuslim Leaders to Appeal High Court Ban on Veils in Schools<\/a>.\u201d The Nation.]<\/p>\n\n\n

[19.\u00a0See U.S. Department of State. July 28, 2014. \u201cCanada.\u201d 2013 Report on International Religious Freedom.]<\/p>\n\n\n

[21.\u00a0For more details on the index and the sources, see the Methodology for Pew Research Center\u2019s February 2015 report \u201cLatest Trends in Religious Restrictions and Hostilities<\/a>.\u201d]<\/p>\n\n\n

The Center\u2019s studies on religious restrictions are part of the Pew-Templeton Global Religious Futures project, which analyzes religious change and its impact on societies around the world. This project is jointly funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts and the John Templeton Foundation.<\/p>\n\n

Women also faced harassment over religious dress<\/h3>\n\n

Even in countries that do not officially regulate women\u2019s attire, women sometimes face social pressure to conform to local customs or societal norms concerning religious dress. Failure to comply can lead to harassment or acts of hostility directed at women by private individuals, organizations or social groups. This includes cases in which women are harassed for wearing religious dress, as well as cases in which they are harassed for perceived violations of religious dress codes. Pew Research Center\u2019s latest study on religious restrictions and hostilities finds that more than 50 countries had at least one incident involving this type of harassment in 2013.[22. See Pew Research Center\u2019s February 2015 report \u201cLatest Trends in Religious Restrictions and Hostilities<\/a>.\u201d]<\/p>\n\n

Harassment of women over religious dress is one of the 13 measures that make up Pew Research Center\u2019s annual index measuring the extent of social hostilities involving religion across the world.[23. For more details on the index, see Pew Research Center\u2019s February 2015 report \u201cLatest Trends in Religious Restrictions and Hostilities<\/a>.\u201d]\u00a0To track harassment of women over religious dress, researchers at the Center comb through the same information sources used to track government restrictions on religion.<\/p>\n\n

It is important to note that the coding of this measure simply reflects the presence or absence of harassment in a particular country, not the extent of the harassment. A country that had a single incident of harassment is coded the same as one that had widespread harassment. It is also very likely that the sources do not capture every incident of harassment in a particular country, especially incidents that occurred within families. In addition, the definition of harassment used in the sources is very broad, covering everything from name-calling to physical assaults. The sources do not attempt to differentiate between the types of harassment or determine the severity of the harassment. However, the sources are particularly likely to take note of very serious incidents of harassment and high-profile incidents that result in media coverage. Therefore, the coding of this measure gives a general sense of how widespread such harassment is around the world and how it may contribute to the climate of human rights and religious freedom in particular countries.<\/p>\n\n

As noted above, the question included in the Social Hostilities Index (\u201cwere women harassed for violating religious dress codes?\u201d) does not differentiate between harassment of women for wearing religious attire or for not wearing religious attire. For this report, researchers went back and recoded the data from 2012 and 2013 to determine how many countries had reports of each type of harassment.<\/p>\n\n

During this two-year period, women were harassed for wearing religious dress in 33 of the 198 countries (17%). By contrast, women were harassed for not abiding by religious dress codes in 23 of the 198 countries (12%). There were relatively few countries in which both types of harassment occurred in 2012 and 2013 (five countries, or 3%).<\/p>\n\n

In general, harassment of women over religious dress was in line with government laws, policies or regulations. For instance, in the 39 countries that restricted women\u2019s ability to wear certain kinds of religious attire, two-thirds of all incidents of harassment involved women who were wearing such attire. And in the 12 countries that mandated some form of religious dress, all the incidents of harassment reported in the study\u2019s sources involved women who failed to abide by the dress codes.<\/p>\n\n

Type of harassment women faced over religious dress varied by region<\/h3>\n\n

When it comes to reported incidents of harassment, Europe stands out in one key respect: In nearly half of the region\u2019s countries (21 of 45), there was at least one report of women being harassed for wearing religious attire in 2012-2013. This is a higher percentage than in the four other regions included in the study.<\/span><\/p>\n\n

\"Where<\/a><\/figure>\n\n

<\/span><\/p>\n\n

\"Where<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

[25.\u00a0<\/span>See Spit\u00e1lszky, Andrea. 2013. \u201cNational Shadow Reports 2012-2013: Spain<\/a>.\u201d European Network Against Racism.]<\/p>\n\n\n

Relatively few European countries (three of the 45, or 7%) had incidents in which women were harassed for not wearing religious attire. One country that did was Russia. Women in the Russian republic of Chechnya were pressured to wear headscarves in public places as part of President Ramzan Kadyrov\u2019s so-called \u201cvirtue campaign,\u201d and in the Chechen capital of Grozny, several women were attacked with paintball guns when they appeared in public without wearing headscarves.[27. See Human Rights Watch. 2013. \u201cRussia. World Report 2013<\/a>.\u201d Also see Human Rights Watch. 2012. \u201cVirtue Campaign on Women in Chechnya Under Ramzan Kadyrov<\/a>.\u201d]<\/p>\n\n

[29.\u00a0See Human Rights Watch. 2013. \u201cTunisia. World Report 2013<\/a>.\u201d]<\/p>\n\n\n

[31.\u00a0See U.S. Department of State. May 20, 2013. \u201cThe Philippines.\u201d 2012 Report on International Religious Freedom. Also see Aug. 5, 2012. \u201cPhilippine School Bans Students from Wearing Hijab<\/a>.\u201d Agence France-Presse.]<\/p>\n\n\n

[33.\u00a0See U.S. Department of State May 20, 2013. \u201cNigeria.\u201d 2012 Report on International Religious Freedom.]<\/p>\n\n\n

[36.\u00a0See Human Rights Watch. 2014. \u201cWorld Report 2014: Canada<\/a>.\u201d Also see Peritz, Ingrid, and Les Perreaux. Sept. 10, 2013. \u201cQuebec Reveals Religious Symbols to be Banned from Public Sector<\/a>.\u201d The Globe and Mail. The proposed \u201ccharter of values\u201d died the following year, after Parti Quebecois was defeated in Quebec\u2019s 2014 general election. See S\u00e9guin, Rh\u00e9al. April 7, 2014. \u201cMarois to Step Down in Wake of Stunning Defeat at the Hands of Liberals<\/a>.\u201d The Globe and Mail.]<\/p>\n\n\n

There were no reports in the study\u2019s sources of women being harassed over religious dress in the United States in 2012-2013. However, it is important to note that the data collection process for the U.S. is slightly different than for the rest of the world since one of the primary sources used for the study \u2013 the U.S. State Department\u2019s International Religious Freedom Report \u2013 does not cover the U.S. To make sure events in the U.S. are not overlooked, researchers examine reports from the U.S. Department of Justice and the FBI, as well as those primary sources that do include data on the United States, including reports by the Anti-Defamation League, the United Nations, Human Rights Watch, the International Crisis Group and the United Kingdom Foreign & Commonwealth Office. Overall, the U.S. has moderate levels of both government restrictions on religion and social hostilities toward religious groups, ranking somewhere in the middle range of nearly 200 countries analyzed in Pew Research Center\u2019s most recent report on religious restrictions and hostilities worldwide.[37. See Pew Research Center\u2019s February 2015 report \u201cLatest Trends in Religious Restrictions and Hostilities.<\/a>\u201d Also see Pew Research Center\u2019s March 25, 2015, Fact Tank post, \u201cHow the U.S. compares with the rest of the world on religious restrictions<\/a>.\u201d<\/span>]<\/span><\/p>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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